MARINE THREATS. Like most marine organisms, P. albatrus are exposed to the threats of marine debris, plastic ingestion and pollution (Table 7). Unlike many southern hemisphere albatrosses, P. albatrus are known to have been taken in U.S and Russian longline fisheries for Pacific cod and Pacific halibut [27]. In addition, birds on Torishima have been observed with hooks in their mouths of the style used in Japanese fisheries near the island [83]. However, the species long-term population growth rate of 6-8% suggests that there is no chronic mortality source that is threatening this species with extinction. A recent population viability analysis conducted for this species suggests that an increase in mortality across age classes of 6% could cause this increasing population to decline in numbers [82]. During their post-breeding migration, adult females may have a prolonged exposure to fisheries in Japanese and Russian waters compared to males, and juvenile birds have a greater exposure to fisheries on the Bering Sea shelf and off the west coasts of Canada and the US [33]. Within the EEZs of the US (off Alaska) and Canada (off British Columbia), mandatory seabird bycatch avoidance requirements are in place and are enforced [14, 84]. It is unknown to what extent seabird avoidance requirements are in place and enforced in Russia’s and Japan’s EEZ, suggesting that albatrosses outside the two aforementioned EEZs (e.g., possibly females and younger age classes) are subjected to greater fisheries- related risks.
MARINE THREATS. Fisheries bycatch is a noted source of mortality for P. immutabilis in the North Pacific Ocean [6, 51]. The development of pelagic longline fisheries for tuna and billfish in the early 1950s, and the pelagic driftnet fishery in the late 1970s added a new mortality source for the species [51]. P. immutabilis preyed heavily on food made available by driftnet fishing operations and an estimated 17,500 were killed in these high seas squid and large-mesh driftnet fisheries in 1990 [80]. The large number of seabirds and other marine animals caught by driftnets caused the fishery to close in 1992 (resulting from a United Nations high-seas driftnet moratorium, UNGA Resolution 46/215) [81]. The fishery closure resulted in a significant reduction of the overall number of P. immutabilis killed [51]. In contrast to the now inactive high seas driftnet fishery, pelagic longline fisheries continue to threaten Pacific albatrosses. Currently, pelagic longline fisheries in the North Pacific are considered the primary threat to P. immutabilis [82, 51]. Fleets from the United States, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan operate in the North Pacific [83] and albatrosses have likely been incidentally killed in this fishery since at least 1951 [51]. The total impact of the pelagic longline fisheries on P. immutabilis will only be known once seabird bycatch data becomes available for all fisheries incurring bycatch mortality. Reliable estimates of the number of albatrosses killed annually as a result of fisheries interactions are difficult to determine because of the paucity of data from most fisheries. Bycatch numbers have been estimated from data that are available for a relatively small subset of the North Pacific fisheries: high seas driftnet (international), pelagic longline (USA), and demersal longline (Canada, USA) [51] and trawl (USA). Xxxxx et al. [51] compiled the existing bycatch information and estimated annual bycatch for the period from 1951 to 2005. Overall, they estimated the rate of bycatch of P. immutabilis was typically less than 10,000 albatrosses/year, but during the period of high seas driftnet fishing (1978 to 1992), the rate increased substantially to a maximum of 27,800 albatrosses/year. In recent years, U.S. North Pacific longline fleets have implemented seabird deterrence measures that have reduced seabird bycatch in longline gear. The bycatch of P. immutabilis in the Hawaii-based pelagic longline fishery has decreased from over 1,000 birds taken annually in 1999 a...
MARINE THREATS. Fisheries bycatch is a noted source of mortality for both P. nigripes and P. immutabilis in the North Pacific Ocean [49, 83, 84]. The development of pelagic longline fisheries for tuna and billfish in the early 1950s, and the pelagic driftnet fishery in the late 1970s added a new mortality source for the species [49, 84]. Both species preyed heavily on food made available by driftnet fishing operations and an estimated 4,400 P. nigripes were killed in these high seas squid and large-mesh driftnet fisheries in 1990 [83]. The large number of seabirds and other marine animals caught by driftnets caused the fishery to close in 1992 (resulting from a United Nations high-seas driftnet moratorium, UNGA Resolution 46/215) [36]. The fishery closure resulted in a significant reduction of the overall number of P. nigripes killed [49]. Although these fisheries killed significantly more P. immutabilis than P. nigripes, the impact was greater on P. nigripes given its smaller population size. Overall, the high seas driftnet and pelagic longline fisheries have been the most important sources of mortality for these species over the past 50 years [49]. In contrast to the now inactive high seas driftnet fishery, pelagic longline fisheries continue to threaten Pacific albatrosses. Currently, pelagic longline fisheries in the North Pacific are considered the primary threat to P. nigripes and P. immutabilis [49, 84]. Fleets from the United States, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan operate in the North Pacific [85] and albatrosses have likely been incidentally killed in this fishery since at least 1951 [49]. The total impact of the pelagic longline fisheries on P. nigripes will only be known once seabird bycatch data becomes available for all fisheries incurring bycatch mortality. Reliable estimates of the number of albatrosses killed annually as a result of fisheries interactions are difficult to determine because of the paucity of data from most fisheries. Bycatch numbers have been estimated from data that are available for a relatively small subset of the North Pacific fisheries: high seas driftnet (international), pelagic longline (USA), and demersal longline (Canada, USA) [49] and trawl (USA). Xxxxx et al. [49] compiled the existing bycatch information and estimated total bycatch for the period from 1951 to 2005. Their estimates indicated a bimodal distribution; bycatch estimates generally ranged between 6,000–10,000 birds per year, but peaked in 1961 and 1988 with 15,290 and 16,215...
MARINE THREATS. Summary information of known interactions with fishing operations, e.g. known to interact with longline and trawl fisheries in waters adjacent to breeding colonies (reference). Also recorded as interacting with longline vessels in distant waters outside the breeding season (reference). Foraging range of adults overlaps with RFMO X and Y during the breeding season. The foraging range of juveniles remains unknown.
