Policy translation. As described above, policy innovations include policy proposals that are entirely novel or new to the policy domain in which they are being introduced. This process has been referred to as policy transfer which includes the transfer of policies as well as institutions, ideologies, attitudes, ideas and lessons (Xxxxxxxx, 1997 in Stone, 2004) and can involve the outright copying of a policy, institution or idea or a process of developing a hybrid of ideas inspired by different policies and experiences (Stone, 2017). Research on policy transfer tends to focus on the transfer of policies between countries (see: Stone, 2017), particularly between developed countries, or from developed countries to developing countries (Stone, 1999). However, policies can also be transferred from international organizations to states or between transnational actors (Stone, 2004). Policy learning, in which policies are developed and modified based on past experiences, tends to result in a more coherent transfer of policies, ideas and practices (Stone, 2004). The outcome of policy learning can be the creation of “consensual knowledge” by both experts and epistemic communities which is eventually accepted by the “decision making elites” (Stone, 2004:548). Once policies are transferred a process of local ownership needs to take place to integrate the new policy into existing frameworks (Xxxxxx et al., 2017; Stone, 2017). In recognition of the fact that once transferred, policies are ultimately shaped and mediated through a social and political process, Stone (2017) introduces policy translation as a more appropriate framework for understanding policy transfer. Policy translation is an iterative and open-ended process which involves drawing lessons from elsewhere and developing policy hybrids often using a process of trial and error (Stone, 2017). The translation of policy is much more likely to occur when there is broad support from both government and non-government actors (Stone, 2004). The transfer of knowledge is also critical in the success of policy translation. Knowledge can be transferred both formally and informally through interactions between non-government actors, particularly think tanks and academic institutions, or in some cases through informal relationships between government actors (Stone, 1999; 2004).
