Temperature measurements. Measurements of air as well as test surface temperature are mandatory. The temperature measuring devices shall be accurate within ±1 °C.
Temperature measurements. Temperature detectors in exhaust gas and air ducts shall be mounted in protecting tubes to provide mechanical support and will be retractable externally from the duct to permit replacement while in operation. Protecting tubes will be made of Type 316 stainless steel pipe not smaller than 1/2-inch size, with screwed pipe bushings welded to the tubes for attachment to the ducts. Duct connections will consist of screwed couplings or adapter flanges welded to the ducts, into which the bushings on the protecting tubes can be threaded. Duct connections will be located to minimize the effect of temperature stratification within the ducts. Protecting tubes exceeding 3 feet in length will be provided with additional supports within the boiler casing or duct and will be of a flow-through design, such that the time constant of the temperature detector does not exceed 3 seconds. Thermocouples and Resistance Temperature Detectors Thermocouples will be of the dual element, chromel-alumel type (ISA Type K) with Type KX extension wire. Thermocouples and extension wire will comply with the standard limits of error as per ANSI MC96.1-1975. The elements as a rule will be separate from ground (ungrounded). Resistance temperature detectors (RTD's) will be of the duplex three-wire platinum type. The nominal resistance of the platinum detectors will be 100 ohms at 0 C. All RTD's for measurement of fluid system temperature will be ungrounded, metal-sheathed, ceramic-packed, and suitable for the design temperature, pressure, and velocity of the fluid system. Thermocouples and RTD's will have sheathed elements spring-loaded to provide good thermal contact with the well or protecting tube. The sheath will be made of stainless steel having swaged-type magnesium oxide insulation. All connection heads will be rated NEMA 4, made of cast aluminum with screwed covers, and supported from the well by a stainless steel extension nipple.
Temperature measurements. The temperature of the vitrified specimen during transfer and cryo-fluorescence imaging was monitored using a thin (0.25 mm) thermocouple (Thermo Electric, Waddinxveen, the Netherlands) that was attached to the sample grid. Temperature was recorded using a Voltcraft (Oldenzaal, the Netherlands) digital thermometer. Prior to performing the measurements, the thermocouple and thermometer ensemble was calibrated for a temperature range of -196°C to 20°C ±0.2%. Cryo-fluorescence microscopy
Temperature measurements at casting mould After the molten silicon has been poured from the refining ladle to the casting mould, the temperature can in principle be measured both from above and at the bottom of the cast. A remote measurement technique, such as an IR camera, can measure the surface temperature of the cast. An example is given in Figure 3. There are some technical challenges:
