Common use of Third Contribution Clause in Contracts

Third Contribution. Innovation in clean energy technologies is central to achieving a net-zero energy system. Given the urgency of climate change mitigation, policymakers and managers of public research organizations are interested in how to best support innovation in clean energy technologies. One key determinant of technological innovation in clean energy technologies that have been underexplored is the transfer or integration of external knowledge, i.e., of knowledge spillovers. Spillovers can substantially advance technological innovation (▇▇▇▇▇▇ and ▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇, 1998; ▇▇▇▇▇▇▇, 1984, 1982a, 1982b; ▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇, 1966), which has empirically been also shown in the fields of clean energy (▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇ et al., 2016a; Nemet, 2012), storage (Noailly and ▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇, 2016) and battery (▇▇▇▇▇▇ et al., 2016) innovations While the literature has described general patterns of knowledge spillovers in clean energy technology innovations--typically by analyzing large sets of patent data—these quantitative studies lack explanatory power how individual spillovers come about: of the mechanisms and enablers of these spillovers. In this research, UCAM addresses this gap asking how knowledge from other technologies, sectors or scientific disciplines is integrated into the innovation process in an important technology for a net zero future: lithium-ion batteries (LIB). We conduct a qualitative case study to allow us to understand how (▇▇▇, 2009) the integration of external knowledge happened. Empirically, we perform a qualitative case study of spillovers in LIB innovations based on a literature review on the evolution of LIBs and on spillovers and an elite interview campaign with R&D/industry experts and key inventors in the LIB field. The analysis draws on two data sources: literature research and semi-structured elite interviews with key actors in the LIB field, i.e., R&D and industry authorities/experts and well-known senior-level inventors of LIB innovations. The methodology applied followed ▇▇▇▇▇▇ (2007): researchers sampled the interviewees (elites) in a purposive, non- probability (i.e., non-random selection) way. In contrast to random sampling, this strategy allows for a real-time and first-hand participant observation of the key actors in the field. Researchers identified an initial subset of interviewees based on literature research, and then initiated a snowballing system whereby the initial interviewees were asked to recommend further experts in that area (▇▇▇▇▇▇, 2007). Researchers talked to eight interviewees, of which half were inventors and half were R&D and industry authorities/experts. The UCAM research makes three main contributions to the literature on spillovers. First, seven key breakthrough LIB innovations are identified. Second, the research shows the extent to which breakthroughs and a few others have resulted from the integration of knowledge from a variety of sources (i.e., different areas of technologies, sectors and scientific fields); often a spillover only happened because of a combination of different sources. Third, different mechanisms and enablers underlying spillovers in LIB innovation were identified, including public research funding providing important researcher autonomy and the interdisciplinary structure of education and research teams. Fourth and last, this work allowed to identify a set of levers for decision makers in policy, academia, and industry who want to facilitate spillovers in LIBs and other clean energy technologies. This analysis and data support four different mechanisms of how spillovers can happen. First, spillovers can occur because people (e.g., inventors) change the technological field, sector or have moved between different scientific disciplines. Second and related, spillovers can occur because people (inventors) receive interdisciplinary education or nurture interdisciplinary interests. Third, spillovers occur because of communication or contact between individuals. Fourth, the access to and the reading of publications such as academic papers, industry reports and press releases can also help to acquire external knowledge, as it happened in the field of LIB innovations. These mechanisms were facilitated by five enablers: the structure of public funding in some cases, which provided freedom of search, the existence of interdisciplinary education and exchange programs, the management and organization in space of R&D groups (including hiring), firms working across multiple sectors, and public interest in an issue. We emphasize two caveats that might limit the external and internal validity of these findings. First, we analyze the specific case of LIBs. For example, LIBs exhibit specific technology characteristics such as high complexity, or mass-production, which might also affect innovation patterns (▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇▇ et al., 2016b; ▇▇▇▇▇▇▇ et al., 2017). Second, our findings are constrained by the data sources available. While the elite interviews allow for a first-hand participant-observation of the innovations, our results are limited to the understanding and framing of the individual interviewees.