Heatwaves. In London, average daily maximum temperature varies from 23oC in July to 8oC in the coolest months of January and February. However, it has been suggested that London is vulnerable to increases in temperature due to the urban heat island effect (LCCP, 2002b). This could have an effect on air quality, summer electricity demand, and comfort in the city’s buildings and transport network. A study that analysed historic data of temperature and heat related deaths in London found that a relatively low mean daily temperature of 20- 23°C had significant effects on mortality in London (Xxxxx et al., 2002). The study furthermore found that episodes of high temperatures over long durations have the largest effect on mortality. Considering London as a whole, DEFRA estimates that the costs associated with heat- related mortality could reach GBP 7m to 78m (EUR 8.6m to 95m) by the 2030s (473-712 deaths), with this figure rising to GBP 13m to 149m (EUR 15.9m to 182.7m) by the 2050s (1,200-1,838 deaths). These figures are not discounted and do not take into account existing adaptation and acclimatisation (DEFRA, 2013a). High temperatures have frequently led to costs in a number of sectors including public transport, health and water supply (City of London, 2010). The heatwave in July 2006 was especially severe and lasted for five days. Road tarmac started to melt, rail sections buckled, and serious health risks were posed to passengers using the London Underground. London Transport suffered enforced speed restrictions and bridges did not close after metal parts expanded. Temperatures on buses were recorded at 52°C on buses and 47°C on the Underground system. Hospitals were not equipped with cooling systems to deal with the high temperatures and public health services were affected. Hospitals were put under the hot weather plan by the Department of Health and GPs were asked to identify the people most at risk from the heatwave for regular check-ups. Ten schools in central London closed early. Due to the loss in productivity, businesses in the UK were also affected. An estimated GBP 154m (EUR 224m) was lost a day by UK employers according to the Centre for Economics and Business Research. Work levels dropped by a third when the temperatures increased to over 30°C and Active Health Partners (AHP) estimated a loss to UK businesses of GBP 119m (EUR 173m) due to absenteeism when temperatures rose above 35°C. The heatwave in August 2003 caused disruptions to London transport, dam...
Heatwaves. Based on work by Buekers et al. (2012) for Flanders, Lauwaet et al. (2013) have extrapolated the impact of heatwaves on health costs in Antwerp, with an average annual loss of life due to heat in Antwerp estimated at over 80 DALYs (Disability-Adjusted Life Years) annually. As each XXXX has an estimated cost of EUR 40,000, they estimate that the social cost of premature deaths due to heatwaves in Antwerp is around EUR 3.2m per year. However, as the authors point out, there remains considerable uncertainty about the assessment of the number of years lost due to mortality as a result of temperature change, as many external factors such as insulation, air conditioning and healthcare provision also play a role. Air pollution, and its associated health costs, is influenced by heatwaves. Due to the Antwerp’s highly industrial zones, including its port, Antwerp experiences relatively high levels of air pollution. Although policies have been implemented to counter this trend, air pollution rates still remain higher than the European Air Quality Directive standards, including the annual threshold for NO2 (which is set at 40µg/m3), and SO2 daily limits (Environment, Nature and Energy Department, 2012).
Heatwaves. Studies on urban thermal comfort have shown that because of Bilbao’s characteristically warm temperatures its population is scarcely affected by heat stress. However stronger temperature increases and heatwaves are predicted to have an effect on human health. Impacts are thought to include an increase of sickness and deaths, due particularly to an increase in episodes of acute respiratory problems and allergies (Basque Government, 2008). Average temperatures in Spain are expected to increase by as much as 5˚C to 7˚C in summer and 3˚C to 4˚C in winter (Basque Government, 2008). Extreme maximum temperatures in the Basque area are expected to increase by between 1˚C and 1.5˚C by the coast, and by 3.5˚C in the rest of the Basque country (Basque Government, 2008). Extreme minimum temperatures on the coast are expected to increase between 1˚C and 1.5˚C, in the area of the Atlantic watershed area are expected to increase between 2˚C and 2.5˚C and an increase between 2.5˚C and 3˚C is expected in the southern part of the Basque country (Basque Government, 2008). Temperature increases result in more evapotranspiration, 130mm are expected by the end of the century for the coastal area of the Basque region, temperature rise also lead to an increased risk of forest fires (Basque Government, 2008). Bilbao’s close location to the sea means it has been industrialising very rapidly since the 1800s. This has led to environmental degradation in the city. Bilbao has very high PM10 levels, with up to 70% of these levels related to the city’s traffic and industrial activities (Xxxxxxxx-Xxxxxxxx et al., 2012). Air quality is also expected to decline with any climate- related temperature increase, which may lead to increases of tropospheric ozone levels, particularly during summer months (Basque Government, 2008). In terms of SO2, PM10, NO2 and CO2 in 2003 there were 263 days with acceptable and good air quality and 2 days with poor quality (Ayuntamiento de Bilbao, 2008a). In 2007, 267 days could account for having admissible or good air quality and 55 days had bad quality and 43 days had very bad air quality (Ayuntamiento de Bilbao, 2008a). GHG emissions in the Basque countries increased by 21.9% between 1990 and 2006, from
Heatwaves. Despite the fact that the majority of fires in Colombia are triggered by humans as a result of agricultural practices, grazing and hunting, Bogota’s vegetation remains vulnerable during dry seasons. The Xxxxxx (moor) which secures natural filtering of water for the city is especially vulnerable during these weather conditions. Authorities reported wildfires affecting 28,000 people in the south of Bogota in January 2005 and destroying 350 hectares of forest (Xxxxx, 2010; El Espectador, 2010). In Manila, an area west of Bogota, 37 municipalities were affected by a fire which reached the outskirts of Bogota.
Heatwaves. While other areas of Andhra Pradesh State experience higher extreme temperatures (such as a high of 51°C in Kothagudem in 2002), temperatures in Hyderabad have not been reported to be as high. However, fatalities due to heatwaves in Hyderabad have been reported (The Times of India, 2003). A heatwave in 2013 reportedly resulted in 84 deaths in Andhra Pradesh State (Deccan Chronicle, 2013). The State Government announced in 2013 that it would pay INR 50,000 (EUR 700) to families below the poverty line if family members died due to sunstroke. In 2003, heatwaves claimed over 3,000 lives in Andhra Pradesh State (Government of Andhra Pradesh, 2010).
Heatwaves. Heatwaves kill more Americans each year than all other natural disasters combined (City of New York, 2013). Heatwaves are more severe in New York City than in neighbouring counties due to the Urban Heat Island effect, affecting energy use, comfort and quality of life. They strain the city’s power grid and cause deaths due to heatstroke and exacerbate chronic health conditions. A heatwave in July 2006 resulted in 40 deaths from heat stroke (New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2006). This was the most deaths from heat stroke since 1952, when 61 deaths occurred. In addition, the death rate from other natural causes in 2006 was estimated to have increased by 8%, or about 100 more deaths, during the heatwave lasting from July 27th to August 5th. A more severe heatwave or one paired with a major power outage could cause even more deaths (City of New York, 2013). The city authorities predict that increased healthcare demands caused by heatwaves could be absorbed by current levels of healthcare operations (City of New York, 2013). However, power outages could lead to evacuation of hospitals and medical centres, as HVAC systems are required for operation and many are not connected to backup power. Increased heatwaves are expected to impact on living conditions in high-rise buildings and lead to more power failures, with electricity infrastructure becoming a major risk category by the 2020s (City of New York, 2013). Power outages could lead to telecommunication outages, while extreme heat could also shorten the lifespan of electronic equipment if spaces are not sufficiently air-conditioned or insulated. Movable infrastructures such as bridges and switches are likely to be impacted by heatwaves, leading to transport disruption (City of New York, 2013). The safety and comfort of commuters on the subway would be affected, and a reduced electrical supply would also affect the reliability of transport, including the disruption of the supply of liquid fuels. An indirect possible impact on wastewater caused by power outages is the reduced treatment levels and sewage bypass, which is a problem during heatwaves (City of New York, 2013). Heatwaves can also exacerbate air pollution levels. Each year PM2.5 pollution is estimated to cause more than 3,000 deaths, 2,000 hospital admissions for lung and heart conditions and approximately 6,000 emergency department visits for asthma (City of New York, 2011).
Heatwaves. High temperatures have been recorded to impact on energy and health in Rio. According to local press reports, temperatures in December 2012 rose up to 43.1°C which caused a number of power cuts and left crucial infrastructure such as the airport without power and air-conditioning (Tavener, 2012). The WHO estimated that urban outdoor air pollution including motor transport, small-scale manufacturers and other industries which use biomass and coal for cooking and heating and the coal-firest power plants are the largest contributor to air pollution in Rio. Residential wood and coal burning and high traffic volumes also contribute to air pollution (Onursal and Gautam, 1997).
