Review of the Literature. In this section some of the results on secret-key agreement by perfectly authen- ticated public discussion are reviewed. Xxxxxxx'x [21] famous result on perfect secrecy, stating that a cipher can achieve perfect secrecy only if the entropy of the secret key is at least as large as the entropy of the plaintext, can be considered as a special case (for 1-round protocols) of Theorem 1 below. Although Xxxxx'x wire-tap channel scenario [25] and Xxxxxxx and Kxxxxx'x generalization [8] thereof do not include a public channel between Xxxxx and Xxx, they should neverthe- less be mentioned here. In those scenarios, Xxxxx can send information over a so-called broadcast channel where Bob and Xxx can receive di erent outputs of the channel. Secret information transmission (and hence secret-key agreement) was shown to be possible if and only if Xxx's channel is noisier than Bob's chan- nel [8], an assumption that is generally unrealistic. In the scenario considered in quantum cryptography (see [2] and references therein), Xxxxx can send polarized light pulses of very low intensity to Bob over 3 H(S) = P s: PS (s)>0 PS (s) log 2 PS (s). See [6] for an introduction to the basic con- cepts of information theory.
Review of the Literature. The purpose of this review of the literature was to select and analyze research relevant to my research questions. After detailing search criteria and methods, the literature is divided into two major sections: ―Theoretical Research on Authenticity‖ and ―Empirical Research on Authenticity in Writing.‖ The first section on theories does not center exclusively on writing because most of the theories of authenticity are general and pertain to education as a whole. When pertinent, empirical work that supports a particular theoretical point is used. Within this first section, five major themes are explored: real world relevance, constructivism, disciplined inquiry, the subjective nature of authenticity, and authenticity as a continuum. The second section on empirical research is divided into research that documents the effects of inauthentic writing instruction and research that documents the effects of authentic writing instruction. Search criteria and methods I am mostly interested in K-12 authentic English language arts education, and even more specifically, writing tasks. Within the search, ―authentic‖ had to apply to the literacy task itself, for example, an authentic purpose for writing, not the authentic assessment or an authentic rubric for writing. A number of exceptions were made for research in college or graduate settings dealing with writing that contributed significantly to a theory of authentic learning that could be applied to K-12 settings. In addition, because writing is interdisciplinary, research in science classrooms that was germane to this study was included. I conducted a number of database searches to find research that focused on authentic writing practices in K-12 classrooms using JSTOR, XXXX (Department of Education), and XXXX (EBSCOhost). Search terms included authentic, writing, secondary, observation, interview, ethnography, and ―writing assessment‖. These terms were used in various combinations and fields in an attempt to identify key pieces. A number of the search terms were descriptors in the XXXX system (including ethnography and ―writing instruction‖), and a number of new descriptors proved helpful such as ―teacher role,‖ ―middle grades,‖ and ―classroom research.‖ I then conducted descriptor searches and limited my search by date. For example, in XXXX (U.S. Department of Education) I searched for ―ethnography‖ and ―writing instruction‖ from 2000- 2010, resulting in 30 search results. Of these 30 results, most were excluded be...
Review of the Literature. Introduction It is important to place the present study’s rationale and aims within the context of a large body of existing literature pertaining to marriage, bereavement, and health. To support this goal, a literature review was undertaken using a variety of electronic sources available through the Xxxxxxxx Health Sciences Center Library at Emory University. The primary electronic tools employed included the PubMed database and the Thomson- Reuters Web of Science Citation Index database. Other search strategies included searching for selected terms through Google and Google Scholar, as well as reviewing articles listed in the bibliographies of articles already accessed. The review is organized into broad sections relating to the evidence for general effects of marriage on health, the impact of bereavement on mortality and other health outcomes, the importance of the context of death of the predeceased spouse, and the potential for new bereavement research approaches offered by health trajectory modeling. Marital Status and Mortality Results of numerous studies over the last century have suggested that marital status affects health and mortality, with married persons generally having a lower risk of dying within a given time period than those who are not married. Reviewing early research in this area from a historical context is beneficial, because the evolution of theories pertaining to marriage and health provides a valuable framework within which we will later consider how bereavement affects mortality. The first comprehensive study of marital status and mortality was published by the British statistician Xxxxxxx Xxxx in 1858 (40). Xxxx combined 1851 French census population counts with counts of all deaths recorded in France during 1853 to compute one-year age-specific mortality risk among married, never-married, and widowed persons. For both men and women across most age groups examined, the married had lower age-adjusted risks than the never-married or widowed groups. Xxxx’x findings led him to conclude that “Marriage is a healthy estate. The single individual is more likely to be wrecked on his voyage than the lives joined together in matrimony” (40). Yet Xxxx also provided a thoughtful discussion on a number of diverse factors that may have contributed to his findings, including potential selection effects and economic considerations. Other early studies, such as those reported by March in 1912 (41) and Bliss in 1915 (42), found patterns of mortali...
Review of the Literature. The Challenges of Immigrant Youth The well-being and productivity of immigrant youth have become one of the most important domestic issues of our times as a result of mass migration and resettlement in the Western Hemisphere. In the United States, immigrant youth account for one-fourth of the of the nation’s 75 million youth (USDA, 2017). Of these, estimates sustain that around eleven million are unauthorized immigrants. Currently, politicians are debating how to best address the challenges presented by their legal status (Silver, 2018). Meanwhile, immigrant youth are confronted by a slew of socioeconomic challenges as they try to adapt to their host country. These challenges vary by age and the length of time the individual has resided in the United States. For example, immigrant youth who are recent arrivals are more likely to live in low-income households with little to no multigenerational wealth (Xxxxxx et al., 2012). They are also more likely to experience parental poverty as their parents are more likely to have a low level of education, and limited employment opportunities within the host country (Xxxxxx et al., 2012). In addition to poverty, language barriers and foreign social and cultural practices also contribute toward their stigmatization and isolation from mainstream youth cultures (Xxxxxx 1999). In Realizing the Potential of Immigrant Youth, Xxxxxx et al further provide extensive research on immigrant youth, focusing on research regarding success within the host country. Through this work, the authors stress the importance of adequate legislative protections for this vulnerable population and delineate the implications for policy and interventions that will benefit host societies as well as immigrant youth. In order to create effective policies at all governmental levels, it is important to recognize the unique socioeconomic challenges that documented and undocumented immigrant youth face in the United States. Through her ethnographic field work, Xxxxxx Xxxxxx sheds light on the currents of exclusion and incorporation that characterize the lives of immigrant youth. The author states that contradictory policies at the national, state, and local levels interact to create a complex environment which the youth must navigate (Silver, 2018). “From heritage- based school programs to state-wide bans on attending community college;” she details, outlining the different political attitudes toward this population, “from the failure of the DREAM Act to...
Review of the Literature. Xxx Arbor: National Center for Research to Improve Post- secondary Teaching and Learning, U of Michigan, 1986. Xxxxxx-Xxxxx, Xxxxxx. “Sharing Power with Students: The Critical Language Class- room.” Radical Pedagogy. 7.2 (2005). <xxxx://xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.xxxxx.xxx/ content/issue7_2/xxxxxx.html>. Xxxxxx, X., X. X. Xxxx, and X. X. Xxxxxxx. Reader Calibration and Its Potential Role in Equating for the Test of Writ- ten English. TOEFL Research Report 52. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 1996. X’Xxxxx, Xxxxxx X. “It’s Broken—Fix it!” Alternatives to Grading Student Writing. Ed. Xxxxxxx Xxxxxx. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. 3–13. Xxxxxxx, Xxxxx X. “Contract Grades: An Agreement between Students and Their Teachers.” Alternatives to Grading Student Writing. Ed. Xxxxxxx Xxxxxx. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. 285–90. Xxxxxxx, Xxxxxx. Foreword. Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Mo- dernity. By Xxxxxx Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxx. Trans. Xxxxxxxxxxx X. Xxxxxxxxx and Xxxxxx X. Xxxxx. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1995. xv. Xxxx, Xxx. When Students Have Power: Nego- tiating Authority in a Critical Pedagogy. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996. Xxxxxx, Xxxxxxx. Alternatives to Grading Student Writing. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. Xxxxxx, Xxxxxxx X. “Understanding Prob- lems in Critical Classrooms.” College Composition and Communication 57.1 (September 2005): 114–41. Xxx, Xxxxxxx, and Xxxxxxxxxxx X. Xxxxxx, eds. The Theory and Practice of Grading Writing: Problems and Possibilities. State U of New York P, 1998. 267 C C C 6 1 : 2 / d e C e m b e r 2 0 0 9 Xxxx Xxxxxxxxxxx Xxxx Xxxxxxxxxxx is associate professor of English at the University of North Caro- lina at Chapel Hill. She has served as director of the Writing Program and remains an active administrator, especially in developing the WID program. She teaches and publishes in the areas of writing pedagogy, genre theory, and autobiography studies. Her article “Personal Genres, Public Voices” appeared in College Composi- tion and Communication (2008). She is the author of Teaching Selves (2001) and is currently at work on a book connecting theories of genre and agency with the practice of autobiography. Xxxxx Xxxxx Xxxxx Xxxxx is professor of English emeritus at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. In 2006 he published “The Music of Form: Rethinking Organization in Writing” in College Composition and Communication. He ...
Review of the Literature. The current literature indicates the great need for understanding and improving the varied areas of child development, particularly for overburdened and additionally vulnerable populations. The Legacy program focuses on four areas of child development: cognitive, language, socioemotional, and behavioral outcomes. Cognitive outcomes refer to the processes utilized by young children related to thinking, memory, language, and reasoning; outcomes related to language include speaking, listening, understanding, and recognizing and using the names of people and objects (Neaum, 2010). Socioemotional outcomes reference how young children understand, express, and manage emotions in themselves and others, as well as how to create positive and fulfilling relationships with others (Cohen, Onunaku, Xxxxxxxx, & Xxxxx, 2005). Finally, behavioral outcomes refer to the activity and attention levels of young children, and their capacity to regulate behavior (Saavedra, Fraser, & Iklé, 2009).
Review of the Literature. Introduction Ever since the use of a vaccine against small pox by Xxxxxx Xxxxxx in 1796, vaccines have become indispensable to the eradication of disease. Major advances have been made not only in the development but also in utilization of vaccines to save lives. Figure 2.1 highlights milestones in vaccine development in the 20th and 21st century. Currently more than 70 vaccines have been licensed for use and in modern day medicine vaccination provides an important, cost- effective strategy to protect against many infectious illnesses (Nabel, 2013).
Review of the Literature. Exclusive Breastfeeding The universal implementation of exclusive breastfeeding or only feeding an infant breast milk for the first six months of their life, could prevent an estimated 823,000 annual deaths in children under five years in LMICs (Victora et al., 2016). In addition to decreasing malnutrition rates, exclusive breastfeeding leads to a 26% reduction in the odds of being overweight or obese in adulthood (WHO, 2013; Victora et al., 2016). Implementing this practice also leads to a 68% reduction in malocclusions, the imperfect positioning of teeth (Victora et al, 2016). Breastfeeding benefits are not exclusive to children: the meta-analysis of 22 systematic reviews by Victora et al., (2016) indicates that breastfeeding can improve birth spacing and protect mothers against ovarian and breast cancer. Though these benefits are widely recognized, one of the main breastfeeding challenges in LMICs is the implementation of exclusive breastfeeding practices (Xxxxxxxx & Xxxxxx, 2010; Victora et al., 2016). A different systematic review under the Lancet Breastfeeding Series, identifies determinants of breastfeeding (Xxxxxxx et al., 2016). Determinants include, hospital practices, influence from family members, particularly, their attitudes and preferences. For example, if a partner does not want his wife breastfeeding in public, a mother is less likely to breastfeed. In this study work is cited as the main reason for early weaning or not breastfeeding at all. At the individual level, subjective norms and benefits are mentioned as the strongest predictors of intention to breastfeed. Factors like inadequate support and anticipated breastfeeding difficulties tend to be barriers to breastfeeding across the literature. Introduction of milk substitutes is correlated with mother’s perceived insufficient milk and the mother feeling as if her child is not full. This review also shows that health systems, the formula industry, and policies directly affect a women’s ability to breastfeed. National Statistics Nicaragua’s top health priorities per the Ministry of Health, include infant mortality, chronic infant malnutrition, and high prevalence of acute respiratory illnesses (MINSA, 2014). The capital, Managua, is directly impacted by these high infant mortality rates, with 29 deaths per 1,000 live births (Xxxxxxxx et al., 2011). Mortality rates and undernutrition are associated with suboptimal breastfeeding practices, but it is nationally recognized that general br...
Review of the Literature. Introduction This study is intended to examine whether knowledge exists among master’s level public health students of the impact of racism on health outcomes and to what extent this knowledge is influenced by their MPH academic program. There are several relevant topics associated with this study including the history of public health’s efforts regarding race based health disparities, the use of terminology like cultural competency versus racism, the use of community service learning as a method of addressing health disparity as well as whether and how well racism’s impact on health disparity has been incorporated into the public health curriculum. This chapter will discuss these topics as they are represented in the literature and then conclude with a discussion of how this study will add to and inform the knowledge base. Current Knowledge: Racism, Health Disparities, and Public Health History of Health Disparity in Public Health It is easier to understand the current state of health disparities and the impact of racism on health outcomes in the United States (US) when you first consider the issue from an historical perspective. According to Xxxxxx and Xxxxxxxxxx (2014), it is important to have this understanding of America’s history of racism and oppression in order to “deal justly with continuing racial disparities in health and health care.” Any reliable history lessons about the earliest days of America society should include the acts of oppression and discrimination directed at people of color. Racism and oppression in the US is pervasive due to “centuries of genocide, 336 years of slavery and legal segregation” where for “over 20 generations, Whites have inherited socioeconomic resources from ancestors who benefitted unjustly from slavery, segregation, and other racial oppression” (ibid).
Review of the Literature. This literature review will outline past research on grocery store-based nutrition interventions to create eating behavior change among vulnerable populations, with particular focus on shelf labeling program evaluations in low- income and minority communities. Importance of the Food Environment Over the past few decades, supporting nutrition behaviors by improving the food environment has become of increased interest to researchers, policymakers, and consumers. In a nationwide survey of adults in the United States, Americans supported policy changes intended to increase access to fruits and vegetables in food deserts (Foltz, Harris, & Xxxxxx, 2012). Food deserts, characterized by areas with low or no access to affordable fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, low-fat milk, and other foods that form a healthy diet, are often found in impoverished neighborhoods (American Nutrition Association, 2011; Michimi & Xxxxxxxx, 2010; Story et al., 2008). Several studies have explored how proximity to food stores plays a role in dietary intake and risk for obesity (Xxxxx et al., 2008; Xxxxxx et al., 2004; Michimi & Xxxxxxxx, 2010; Morland et al., 2006). For example, Morland et al. (2006) found that the presence of supermarkets, which tend to have a wider variety of healthy foods, was associated with a decreased prevalence of obesity and overweight. Further, neighborhoods with access only to smaller grocery stores or convenience stores had the greatest increase in prevalence of obesity. In two separate studies, fruit and vegetable consumption was significantly higher among residents who lived near a food store, particularly among low-income African-American residents with limited access to transportation (Xxxxx et al., 2008; Morland et al., 2006). In addition, Xxxxxx et al. (2004) examined proximity to supermarkets and eating behaviors among pregnant women; pregnant women who lived closer distances (i.e., less than four miles) to a supermarket were more likely to maintain a nutritionally adequate diet, than women who lived farther distances. While researchers recognize the importance of access, it has been suggested that simply the presence of a neighborhood food store may not be sufficient to promote healthy eating. In a recent pilot study conducted to measure the impact of improving access by opening a new food store in a Philadelphia food desert, Cummins et al. (2014) measured BMI, daily fruit and vegetable intake, and perceptions of food accessibility. Researchers f...
