Historical Overview. 2.1 Situation pre-TRIPS WTO panels are not obliged to apply the rules of treaty interpretation laid down in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties199, although some panels have actually referred to them in some circumstances. But the pro- visions of the Vienna Convention are not mandatory.
Historical Overview. The concept of ROC was introduced at the first meeting on Argos Joint Tariff Agreement (JTA-I) (Geneva, Switzerland, December 1981). The Meeting adopted a proposal «which foresees that agreements will be signed directly between the user Representative* and Service Argos.» The note under the * reads: «Representative is a unique Representative Organization for a country or a group of countries as given in the Global Agreement.» The Global Agreement starts with the following sentence: «These Terms and Conditions outline costs to and services to be provided by Service Argos of CNES and the (*). jointly providing support to their own authorized users for the location and data processing associated with the implementation and testing of remote platforms communicating with the satellites of the TIROS-N series.» The note under the (*) reads: «Quote the country and its own organization in charge of the Agreement with regards to CNES Service Argos. Hereafter defined by "ROC", i.e., a unique Representative Organization for a Country or a group of countries.»
Historical Overview. In consultation with the City of Santa Xxxx Planning and Community Development Department, a qualified historian or architectural historian shall assemble historical background information relevant to La Bahia Apartments and its setting. Much of this information may be drawn from the Historical Resources Technical Report prepared by Architectural Resources Group (2013) for the La Bahia Hotel project. To ensure its public accessibility, the agreed-upon documentation would be filed with the Santa Xxxx Public Library for inclusion in their local history collection, as well as with other local libraries and historical societies, as appropriate.
Historical Overview. To further define interactive film as its own medium, it is important to retrace its historical evolution. The history of interactive film has two distinct stages, the first being the early development of the medium in the 1960’s when directors experimented with providing audiences decisions that would impact the outcome of characters and the plot. The second stage occurred during the 1990’s where the term “interactive film” became popularized with Full Motion Video (FMV) – a type of video game with pre-recorded filmed sequences mixed into segments of interactivity – and interactive films seen in theatres. The very first recorded “interactive film” was Mr. Sardonicus (Xxxxxxx Xxxxxx, 1961). The film follows Baron Sardonicus (Xxx Xxxxx), a man whose face freezes into a horrible grimace after searching for a winning lottery ticket in his deceased father’s grave. Before the film’s climax, viewers were presented the option to determine the fate of Sardonicus through a majority “punishment poll” determining whether Sardonicus would live or die in a “punishment” or “merciful” ending (Brottman, 1997, 5). The “punishment” had Sardonicus starve to death whereas the “merciful” ending saw Sardonicus cured and allowed to live. Viewers would vote on their chosen option using a provided glow-in-the dark card with an image of a thumb, which could either be oriented as a thumbs up or thumbs down. The majority vote determined which ending was played, however according to Castle’s autobiography, he had only filmed the “punishment” ending making the punishment poll a marketing gimmick rather than a functioning interactive element of the film (Law qtd. in Xxxxx, 2017, 38). Despite its lack of functioning interactivity, the concept of having viewers directly engage with the diegesis through a decision interface to determine the final outcome was a fundamental foundation for the basis of interactive film. Although the interface was never truly functional, it marks an important understanding of the illusion of control in which viewers are presented with the impression of autonomy over the diegesis, but in reality, are simply abiding by the pre-determined rules of the director. This is a key concept to understand in analyzing the symbiosis of interface and themes prevalent in Bandersnatch. Interactive film truly began in 1967 with the Czechoslovakian film, Kinoautomat (Xxxxx Xxxxxxx, 1967) also known as One Man and His House). The film was first premiered at the 1967 Internationa...
Historical Overview. Emerging from the classical realistic tradition, the Symbolist movement (1870-1920s) surged through the artistic community with its novel understanding of the very purpose of art. Its initial origin was a “spontaneous revolt against all social and moral values” (Mohrenschildt, 1193). Imperial Russia bore an incredibly disparate proportion of wealthy aristocrats and starving individuals. The contradictions of daily life weighed heavily on the minds of artists, who sought to escape these contradictions by fashioning the notion of an alternate world in pursuit of “higher ideas and eternal truths” (“Symbolism in Russian Literature of the Silver Age” 2015). The purpose of art, in the Symbolists’ view, was to explore “the true essence of being” by tapping into the “higher reality” expressed poignantly in the Symbolist platform which in its later stages heralded mystical contents. This deep fascination with mysticism could be interpreted as a divorce from the “political and social actualities” that characterized the realistic literature of the time (Mohrenschildt, 1199; “Symbolism in Russian Literature of the Silver Age” 2015). How this mysticism affected the content of Symbolist literature is best exemplified through literature of “Decadent” writers during Russia’s fin-de-siècle, particularly in the wildly controversial rhetoric of Xxxxxx Xxxxxxx. Very few fin-de-siècle authors produced works as provocative or as paradoxical as Rozanov. Rozanov’s means of capturing the “true essence of being” is marked by a prodigious amount of discourse on sexuality and its implications for the body. Sexuality, he surmises, is a crucial element for a functioning society. This investigation understands sexuality to be a biological expression of the somatic body and Rozanov contextualizes sexuality in relation to the ecclesiastical body of the Orthodox Church. He contends that sexuality that is “repressed by state and religion” is deleterious for the body politics as a whole, creating “a society that cannot function as a politically healthy organism” (Xxxxxx, 1). The Russian Decadent’s brand of body politics designates “bodies as sites on to which a given culture inscribes meaning” and healthy, ideal bodies are those that are “liberated from the sexual repression and inhibitions imposed by the European Christian culture” (Xxxxxx, 9). In other words, the perfect body is one that expresses sexuality freely and without regulation. Rozanov valued sexuality greatly and ascribed positi...
Historical Overview. The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 dramatically altered the political landscape of Russia, prompting a sociocultural upheaval that aimed to reinvent the values upon which the nation was predicated. Blaming social ills on the systematic oppression engendered by capitalism, the Bolsheviks catalyzed their modernization experiment which endeavored to create bodies suffused with the ideals of communism. The Soviet vision of the ideal body is that it is sanitized, so that the new state leaves behind the “capitalist world plagued by ineradicable dirt, disorder, and decline” (XxXxxxxx 2010). As Xxxxxx asserts, creation of the “body Soviet” was an integral component to the Bolshevik vision of creating “socialist utopia,” seeking to ensure the success of their platform (Xxxxxx, 4). Soviets believed that “ordered lives produced healthy bodies and politically enlightened, productive, and happy populations” that are governable and productive (Xxxxxx, 4). One emergent value that the Soviets championed was the value of hygiene, and Soviets utilized hygiene as a biopolitical metric against which bodies were compared. Hygiene and cleanliness, features of the somatic body, were assigned cultural significance and served as biopolitical metrics against which bodies were compared against. The Soviet fixation on hygiene originates from its earliest years, wherein the establishment of hygiene practices was essential for ensuring the survival of the nascent political body. Political leaders strove to create a healthy body which would create, by extension, a healthy body politic. Shortly after the 1917 October revolution and the subsequent establishment of the new Soviet state, political leaders were pressed for solutions to the war-ravaged nation. Russia faced crippling health problems such as “large scale typhus and cholera epidemics and mass starvation” (Xxxxxxxxx, 30). It was soon realized that the successful realization of communism was contingent upon a healthy workforce. In 1918, Lenin established the People’s Commissariat of Public Health (Narkomzdrav) which localized “control, administration, and planning of the nation’s health services” within that particular ministry (Xxxxxxxxx, 30).The Narkomzdrav enlisted a “shock troop” of state-sponsored medical professionals as well as grassroots community activists for policing individual bodies to ensure compliance and to levy discipline on bodies who subvert the Soviet vision of creating “clean and incorruptible communist mind and...
Historical Overview. Historically, most changes in international regulations for ship design and operation have been introduced as a result of major disasters with a large loss of life. The first notable of such disasters was the sinking of the TITANIC, which led a year later to the first International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea in London. The first damage stability requirements were introduced, however, following the 1948 SOLAS Convention and the first specific criterion on residual stability standards at the 1960 SOLAS Convention with the requirement for a minimum residual GM (0.05m). This represented an attempt to introduce a margin to compensate for the upsetting environmental forces. "Additionally, in cases where the Administration considered the range of stability in the damaged condition to be doubtful, it could request further investigation to their satisfaction". Although this was a very vague statement, it was the first attempt to legislate on the range of stability in the damaged condition. It is interesting to mention that a new regulation on "Watertight Integrity above the Margin Line" was also introduced reflecting the general desire to do all that was reasonably practical to ensure survival after severe collision damage by taking all necessary measures to limit the entry and spread of water above the bulkhead deck. The first probabilistic damage stability rules for passenger vessels, deriving from the work of Xxxx Xxxxxx on “Subdivision of Ships”, [7] were introduced in the late sixties as an alternative to the deterministic requirements of SOLAS ‘60. Subsequently and at about the same time as the 1974 SOLAS Convention was introduced, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), published Resolution A.265 (VIII). These regulations used a probabilistic approach to assessing damage location and extent drawing upon statistical data to derive estimates for the likelihood of particular damage cases. The method consists of the calculation of an Attained Index of Subdivision, A, for the ship which must be greater than or equal to a Required Subdivision Index, R, which is a function of ship length, passenger/crew numbers and lifeboat capacity. The Equivalent Regulations raised new damage stability criteria addressing equilibrium as well as recommending a minimum GZ of 0.05m to ensure sufficient residual stability during intermediate stages of flooding. Calculate A/Amax (simplified) SSTTAAARRRTTT Calculate A (full) Initial Design Loading Scenarios RO-RO S...
Historical Overview. In The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man and Society, Xxxx and Xxxx Xxxxx provide a fascinating social and historical account of tuberculosis, noting the disease has been endemic to London for centuries (Xxxxx and Xxxxx 1953:6-8). By the 11th century, TB was a sufficiently serious problem that Xxxxxx the Confessor, following in the footsteps of French Kings, claimed the power of “the touch” for English monarchs to cure tuberculosis. This “cure” was subsequently used for centuries, with “the largest number of persons applying to be touched... in 1684, when many of them were trampled to death in attempting to reach the hand of the king “(Xxxxx and Xxxxx 1953:8). After a brief lull in its virulence starting in the early 18th century, TB roared back with a vengeance a few decades later (Xxxxx and Xxxxx 1953:8). At the end of the 18th, and the first-half of the 19th centuries, aided by the appalling living and working conditions of the Industrial Revolution, “the White Plague” threatened “the very survival of the European race” (Xxxxx and Xxxxx 1953:10). Indeed, by the early 19th century virtually every citizen in London was infected by mycobacterium tuberculosis, as “the prevalence of TB infection neared 100 percent” (Xxxxx 2003:15), with nearly half of London’s population having active TB disease (Xxxxx and Xxxxx 1953:9). Xxxxxxxxx Xxxxxx in 1845 described it thus: The flushed appearance of many of the passers-by in the streets of London indicates to what an extent the polluted atmosphere of the capital, particularly in the workers’ quarters, fosters the prevalence of consumption (quoted in Xxxxx and Xxxxx 2003:7) Gradually, over the decades which followed, improved nutrition and housing conditions helped dramatically reduce TB rates and associated deaths in the UK. TB rates began to decline in 1913 and continued to do so until 1987 when, much to everyone’s surprise, the decline ended (XxXxxx & Xxxxxxx 1995). Until the mid-1980s, public health officials around the world spoke of being on the brink of “eradicating” TB. However, today terms such as “containment” and “control” convey a new understanding and approach in the global battle against tuberculosis. In 2000, Dr. Xxx Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxx, then Director-General of the WHO, observed:
Historical Overview. Hill AFB began as a 3,000 acre supply and maintenance depot officially opened in November 1940 and officially named Hill Field in honor of Major Ployer X. Xxxx.1,2 With the onset of World War II, the depot was elevated to command status and employment at the depot grew to nearly 22,000, some 15,780 civilians and 6,000 military personnel. In 1948 Hill Field became Hill Air Force Base.3 The Base experienced consolidation following WWII, until the outbreak of hostilities in Korea in 1950. During the Korean Conflict, employment at the base reached almost 16,000 people in 1952. Following the Korean Conflict, the depot’s maintenance production lines continued work on jet aircraft such as the F-84, F-89, F-101, and F-102, and employment at the depot stabilized at around 12,000 people.4 In 1955, the Ogden Arsenal was combined with Hill Field, doubling the size of the base to about 6,700 acres. Starting in1959, the depot became the logistics manager for the Minuteman Intercontinental Ballistic Missile as well as management and maintenance of the F-101 “Voodoo” and F-4 “Phantom” fighter aircraft. As Utah became a major player in the missile industry, Xxxx took on a new profile gaining the, maintenance responsibilities for the F-16 “Fighting Falcon In the mid-1970s.”5
Historical Overview. In this section, an historical overview of the most influential and precursor models underlying the executive functioning is presented. The study of the executive functions starts with the observation of patients showing disturbances to plan their daily activities, independently of any long-term memory, language or IQ difficulties. Based on neuropsychological testing, cognitive models were then developed (Xxxxx, 1966) and enriched through the years (Xxxxxxxx, 1986; Xxxxxx & Xxxxxxxx, 1986). The most influential and up to date model describing the executive functions remains the model of Working Memory proposed by Xxxxxxxx in 1986 (see Xxxxxxxx, 2012).
